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Decomposition - is the process whereby bodily tissues are broken down into smaller molecules after death. The physical and chemical properties observed during decay are categorized into five stages: (1) fresh, (2) putrefaction, (3) black putrefaction, (4) butyric fermentation, and (5) dry decay

Time of Death

General factors used to estimate time of death are:

Body temperature, rigor mortis, postmortem lividity, appearance of the eyes, stomach contents, stage of decomposition and evidence suggesting a change in the victim’s normal routine.

Body Temperature:

• drops 2 to 3 degrees in the first hour after death; and 1 to 1.5 degrees for each subsequent hour up to 18 hours

Rigor Mortis:

• appears in the head 5 to 6 hours after death; in the upper body after about 12 hours; and in the entire body after about 18 hours.
• after about 36 hours, rigor mortis usually disappears in the same sequence that it appeared. 
• any weapon tightly clenched in the victim’s hand as a result of cadaveric spasm indicates suicide rather than murder

Postmortem Lividity:

• starts one half to 3 hours after death and is congealed in the capillaries in 4 to 5 hours
• maximum lividity occurs within 10 to 12 hours
• the location of lividity can indicate whether a body was moved after death

Eyes:

• partial constriction of the pupil occurs in about 7 hours
• in 12 hours, the cornea appears cloudy

Stomach Contents:

• the investigator should determine when and what the victim last ate - if any vomit is present, it should be preserved as evidence and submitted for examination

Water:

• a dead body usually sinks in water and remains immersed for 8 to 10 days in warm water, or 2 to 3 weeks in cold water - it them rises to the surface if not restricted
• the outer skin loosens in 5 to 6 days, and the nails separate in 2 to 3 weeks

Flies and Human Decomposition

A human body provides sustenance and a great place for insects to lay eggs. A fly trying to find its way in this crazy, mixed-up world can eat well on a corpse, and then lay up to 300 eggs upon it that will hatch within a day.

Maggots — the larvae that emerge from these eggs — are extremely efficient and thorough flesh-eaters. Starting on the outside of the body where they hatched, maggots use mouth hooks to scoop up the fluids oozing out of the corpse. Within a day’s time, the maggots will have entered the second stage of their larval lives, as well as burrowing into the corpse.

Moving around as a social mass, maggots feed on decaying flesh and spread enzymes that help turn the body into delectable goo. The breathing mechanism of a maggot is located on the opposite end of its mouth, enabling it to simultaneously eat and breathe without interruption around the clock. While a first-stage larva is about 2 millimeters long, by the time it exits the third stage and leaves the body as a prepupa, it may be as large as 20 millimeters — 10 times its initial length. Maggots can consume up to 60 percent of a human body in under seven days

Human Death and Decay

• when your heart stops beating, your body’s cells and tissues stop receiving oxygen. Brain cells are the first to die — usually within three to seven minutes Bone and skin cells, though, will survive for several days.)
• Blood begins draining from the capillaries, pooling in lower-lying portions of the body, creating a pale appearance in some places and a darker appearance in others.
• About three hours after death, rigor mortis — a stiffening of muscles — sets in. 
• Around 12 hours after death, the body will feel cool, and within 24 hours (depending on body fat and external temperatures), it will lose all internal heat in a process called algor mortis. 
• The muscle tissue begins to lose its stiffness after about 36 hours, and within about 72 hours of dying, the body’s rigor mortis will subside.
• As the cells die, bacteria within the body begin breaking them down. Enzymes in the pancreas cause the organ to digest itself. The body soon takes on a gruesome appearance and smell. 
• Decomposing tissue emits a green substance, as well as gasses such as methane and hydrogen sulfide.
• The lungs expel fluid through the mouth and nose.
• Insects and animals certainly take notice of all this. A human body provides sustenance and a great place for insects to lay eggs. A fly trying to find its way in this crazy, mixed-up world can eat well on a corpse, and then lay up to 300 eggs upon it that will hatch within a day.

The environment in which a dead body is placed also affects its rate of decay. For instance, bodies in water decompose twice as fast as those left unburied on land. Decomposition is slowest underground — especially in clay or other solid substances that prevent air from reaching the body since most bacteria require oxygen to survive.

Human Death and Decay

• when your heart stops beating, your body’s cells and tissues stop receiving oxygen. Brain cells are the first to die — usually within three to seven minutes Bone and skin cells, though, will survive for several days.)
• Blood begins draining from the capillaries, pooling in lower-lying portions of the body, creating a pale appearance in some places and a darker appearance in others.
• About three hours after death, rigor mortis — a stiffening of muscles — sets in. 
• Around 12 hours after death, the body will feel cool, and within 24 hours (depending on body fat and external temperatures), it will lose all internal heat in a process called algor mortis. 
• The muscle tissue begins to lose its stiffness after about 36 hours, and within about 72 hours of dying, the body’s rigor mortis will subside.
• As the cells die, bacteria within the body begin breaking them down. Enzymes in the pancreas cause the organ to digest itself. The body soon takes on a gruesome appearance and smell. 
• Decomposing tissue emits a green substance, as well as gasses such as methane and hydrogen sulfide.
• The lungs expel fluid through the mouth and nose.
• Insects and animals certainly take notice of all this. A human body provides sustenance and a great place for insects to lay eggs. A fly trying to find its way in this crazy, mixed-up world can eat well on a corpse, and then lay up to 300 eggs upon it that will hatch within a day.

The environment in which a dead body is placed also affects its rate of decay. For instance, bodies in water decompose twice as fast as those left unburied on land. Decomposition is slowest underground — especially in clay or other solid substances that prevent air from reaching the body since most bacteria require oxygen to survive.

(Source: criminalprofiler)

ADIPOCERE

Also known as “grave wax,” adipocere (from the Latin, adipo for fat and cera for wax) is a grayish-white postmortem (after death) matter caused by fat decomposition, which results from hydrolysis and hydrogenation of the lipids (fatty cells) that compose subcutaneous (under the skin) fat tissues.

Although decomposition of fatty tissues starts almost immediately after death, adipocere formation time may vary from two weeks to one or two months, on average, due to several factors, such as temperature, embalming and burial conditions, and materials surrounding the corpse. For instance, the subcutaneous adipose (fatty) tissue of corpses immersed in cold water or kept in plastic bags may undergo a uniform adipocere formation with the superficial layers of skin slipping off.

Several studies have been conducted in the last ten years to understand and determine the rate of adipocere formation under different conditions. Other studies also investigated the influence of some bacteria and chemicals, present in grave soils, in adipocere decomposition. Although this issue remains a challenging one, the purpose of such studies is to establish standard parameters for possible application in forensic analysis, such as the estimation of time elapsed since death when insect activity is not present. In forensics, adipocere is also important because preserved body remains may offer other clues associated either with the circumstances surrounding or the cause of death. The ability of adipocere to preserve a body has been well illustrated in exhumed corpses, even after a century.

Adipose cells are rich in glycerol molecules and are formed by triglycerols (or triglycerides). Bacterial activity releases enzymes that break these triglycerides into a mixture of saturated and unsaturated free fatty acids, a process known as hydrolysis. In the presence of enough water and enzymes, triglycerol hydrolysis will proceed until all molecules are reduced to free fatty acids. Unsaturated free fatty acids, such as palmitoleic and linoleic acids, react with hydrogen to form hydroxystearic, hydroxypalmitic acids and other stearic compounds, a process known as saponification, or turning into soap.

This final product of fat decomposition, or adipocere, can be stable for long periods of time due to its considerable resistance to bacterial action. This resistance allows for slower decomposition of those areas of a corpse where adipose tissues are present, such as cheeks, thighs, and buttocks. When a corpse is exposed to insects, however, adipocere probably will not be formed, as body decomposition will be much faster because of the insects’ action. Animal scavenging of a dead body will also prevent adipocere formation.

Time of Death

General factors used to estimate time of death are:

Body temperature, rigor mortis, postmortem lividity, appearance of the eyes, stomach contents, stage of decomposition and evidence suggesting a change in the victim’s normal routine.

Body Temperature:

• drops 2 to 3 degrees in the first hour after death; and 1 to 1.5 degrees for each subsequent hour up to 18 hours

Rigor Mortis:

• appears in the head 5 to 6 hours after death; in the upper body after about 12 hours; and in the entire body after about 18 hours.
• after about 36 hours, rigor mortis usually disappears in the same sequence that it appeared. 
• any weapon tightly clenched in the victim’s hand as a result of cadaveric spasm indicates suicide rather than murder

Postmortem Lividity:

• starts one half to 3 hours after death and is congealed in the capillaries in 4 to 5 hours
• maximum lividity occurs within 10 to 12 hours
• the location of lividity can indicate whether a body was moved after death

Eyes:

• partial constriction of the pupil occurs in about 7 hours
• in 12 hours, the cornea appears cloudy

Stomach Contents:

• the investigator should determine when and what the victim last ate - if any vomit is present, it should be preserved as evidence and submitted for examination

Water:

• a dead body usually sinks in water and remains immersed for 8 to 10 days in warm water, or 2 to 3 weeks in cold water - it them rises to the surface if not restricted
• the outer skin loosens in 5 to 6 days, and the nails separate in 2 to 3 weeks